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ECONOMIES OF SCALE: Declining long-run average cost that occurs as a firm increases all inputs and expands its scale of production. This is graphically illustrated by a negatively-sloped long-run average cost curve and typically occurs for relatively small levels of production. Economies of scale are then overwhelmed by diseconomies of scale for relatively large production levels. Together, economies of scale and diseconomies of scale cause the long-run average cost curve to be U-shaped.

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FOUR-FIRM CONCENTRATION RATIO

The proportion of total output in an industry produced by the four largest firms in an industry. This is one of two common concentration ratios. The other is the eight-firm concentration ratio. Another related measure is the Herfindahl index. The four-firm concentration ratio is commonly used to indicate the degree to which an industry is oligopolistic and the extent of market control held by the four largest firms in the industry.

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Today, you are likely to spend a great deal of time calling an endless list of 800 numbers looking to buy either a handcrafted bird house or a weathervane with a chicken on top. Be on the lookout for letters from the Internal Revenue Service.
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Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a champion of the scientific method, died when he caught a severe cold while attempting to preserve a chicken by filling it with snow.
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